Overreaction Hypothesis and Contrarian Strategy (the efficiency of Essay

Overreaction Hypothesis and Contrarian Strategy (the efficiency of financial markets) - Essay Example The OR hypothesis states that investors overreact to information, and that there are two ways by which investors exaggerate their reaction. In the face of bad news, for example, some investors think that the reality is worse and react over-pessimistically, while some think that the reality is not as bad as it seems and react over-optimistically. So while bad news can be factored in by rational investors according to EMH and their effect on the value of the stock can be calculated before these investors begin to do anything (buy, sell, or hold), some investors are claimed by behavioural finance proponents as acting in irrational ways, making decisions based on their overreaction to information. The effect of overreaction is a large decline in stock prices when pessimistic investors begin to think that the bad news is not true and that the reality is much worse than it really is. The opposite effect holds in the face of good news: investors may overreact and think that the reality is better, so they buy stocks in the market. This shows that some investors are biased in the way they interpret information, and this bias causes stock price anomalies that can be exploited by investors by using a contrarian strategy.

Autism and Mental Retardation Essay Example for Free

Autism and Mental Retardation Essay Respond to the following: 1. List the primary features of autism. Children with autism are unresponsive to others, uncommunicative, repetitive, and rigid their symptoms usually appear before the age of three. An autistic individual will have difficulty sustaining employment, accomplishing household responsibilities, and leading independent lives. Furthermore, they express having problems displaying closeness and empathy and have limited interests and activities. The characteristics seem to be pronounced as indifferent in physical care and affectionate expressive interest in those who are taking care of them. Verbal communication and language impairments and inability to use speech are often primary features of autism. Some autistic individuals may exhibit Echolalia a echoing of phrases used without apparent understanding. Some may even repeat sentences a week later, this is called delayed echolalia. Their variation of speech difficulties include; paranormal reversal, difficulty in naming objects, lack of verbal understanding and use of suitable tone in their voice while talking. Some noticeable characteristics that often expose autism are their lack of imagination while playing, rigid, abnormal and repetitive behaviors, failure to accept environmental change and obsession with animate things and inanimate things. They express repetitive and unusual motor movements like flapping their hands, and odd facial expressions. Below is a checklist the DSM has provided for a guideline to diagnosis of autism. 1. A total of at least six items from the following groups of symptoms: A. Impairment in social interaction, as manifested by at least two of the following: (a) Marked impairment in the use of multiple nonverbal behaviors such as eye-to-eye gaze, facial expression, body postures, and gestures to regulate social interaction. (b) Failure to develop peer relationships appropriately. (c) Lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment, interests, or achievements with other people. (d) Lack of social or emotional reciprocity. B. Impairment in communication, as manifested by at least one of the  following: (a) Delay in or total lack of, the development of spoken language. (b) In individuals with adequate speech, marked impairment in the ability to start or sustain a conversation with others. (c) Stereotyped and repetitive use of language, or idiosyncratic language. (d) Lack of varied, spontaneous make-believe play or social imitative play. C. Restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests, and activities, as manifested by at least one of the following: (a) Abnormal preoccupation with one or more stereotyped and restricted patterns of interest. (b) Inflexible adherence to specific nonfunctional routines or rituals. (c) Stereotyped and repetitive motor mannerisms (e.g., hand or finger flapping or twisting). (d) Persistent preoccupation with parts of objects. 2. Prior to 3 years of age, delay or abnormal functioning in either social interaction, language, or symbolic or imaginative play. 2. Which explanation for autism is no longer considered valid and lacks research support? The sociocultural model lacks support and the theory suggests that autism could progress through particular personality characteristics of the parents. These characteristics generated unfavorable development and contributed to the development of the disorder. This theory is no longer considered. 3. What forms of treatment are helpful for a person with autism? The treatment that is helpful for a person with autism is behavioral therapy, communication training, parent training, and community integration. Psychotropic drugs and certain vitamins have at times aided when joined with other approaches. Behavioral therapies consist of therapist using modeling and operant conditioning. In modeling they exhibit a chosen behavior and direct the individual to reproduce it. In operant conditioning, they reinforce such behaviors, first by shaping them, breaking them down so they can be learned step by step and then rewarding each step visibly and consistently. These measures often create more purposeful behaviors and long term achievements. Communication Training is a therapy that is often taught to those individuals who remain speechless. They are taught other forms of communication, including sign language and simultaneous communication, a method combining sign language and speech. They also learn  to use augmentative communication systems, such as communication boards or computers that use pictures, symbols, or written words to represent objects or needs. In some programs teachers try to recognize essential underlined forcers rather than insignificant ones like food or candy. They encourage participation in choosing an item they want and then encouraging them to ask for it with questions like; what’s that? Where is it? And whose is it? The studies have found that child- directed interventions increase self-initiated communications, language development, and social participation. Parenting training programs train parents so they can apply behavioral techniques at home. They are provided with instruction manuals, and teachers do home visits. Individual therapy and support groups help parents of autistic children deal with their own emotions and needs. Community integration is a great tool for autistic individuals, In today’s school and home based programs there are programs for autism children to teach self-help, self-management, and living, social, and work skills as early as possible to help children function better in their communities. There have been many workshops and group homes available now for teenagers and young adults with autism to help them become a part of their communities. These types of programs give parents a since of relief as their child will always need supervision. 4. List the criteria for a diagnosis of mental retardation: The DSM-IV-TR gives guidelines to the diagnosis of mental retardation. Individuals need to display general intellectual functioning that is well below average, in combination with poor adaptive behavior. As well as having a low IQ score of 70 or below. There should be notable difficulty in communication, home living, self-direction, work or safety. These symptoms should appear before the age of 18. 5. Explain one way in which sociocultural biases in testing might pose problems for assessing mental retardation. Sociocultural biased in testing that might pose a problem for assessing mental retardation is IQ testing. IQ testing in some children has caused them to be labeled retarded when they had trouble speaking the language at a level that would establish their IQ. 6. Of the four levels of mental retardation, into which category do most  people with mental retardation fall? Mild level – IQ ranges from 50 – 70. â€Å"They are sometimes called â€Å"educably retarded† because they can benefit from schooling and can support themselves as adults† (Cromer, 2011). 7. What are the main types of biological causes of mental retardation? The main types of biological causes of mental retardation are Down syndrome, fetal alcohol syndrome, and fragile X syndrome. 8. What is the only way to prevent fetal alcohol syndrome? The only way to prevent fetal alcohol syndrome is to not drink during pregnancy. 9. What are normalization and mainstreaming? Normalization and mainstreaming are educational terms; they reference the settlement of mentally retarded individuals within ordered classrooms. This is to make sure these individuals can intermingle and learn along with typical fellow students. The school systems have made adjustments and adaptations to their core curriculum and the teaching given to the mentally retarded child. 10. What is your opinion about mainstreaming and normalization for children and adults with autism or mental retardation? I agree with mainstreaming for a person who is suffering from autism or mental retardation. Autism runs in my family, and I have a cousin who is the same as age as I am and she did not receive mainstreaming when she was younger and she is severely handicapped I believe because of this. On the other hand, our classrooms are overcrowded and teachers are experiencing challenges within the so called â€Å"normal† population. Labeling these individuals at such an early age incorporates stereotyping within the classroom and can cause even more hardship for those individuals. My ex-husband’s brother had an autistic child who is thriving and even attending college classes at a University. He did have special schooling and went to private therapies. His success was through behavioral therapy and parenting training. I would say mainstreaming should be considered on the level of the disorder. If the disorder is extreme, then consideration should be given to the teacher and her other thirty something students. It is a hard question when in fact someone could be mildly retarded or highly retarded and the school system really needs to know just where the individual stands with their language ability and social ability. Resource: Comer, R. J. (2011). Fundamentals of abnormal psychology (6th ed.). New York, NY.

Paul Ehrlich :: essays research papers fc

I. A World To Change Everyone on this earth has to be grateful to Paul Ehrlich because he made so many advances in medical research. Our life expectancy rate would still be around forty years if Ehrlich hadn’t been interested in chemistry and biology as a young boy. If Ehrlich hadn’t combined so many different chemicals, he would have never combined the chemical known as number 606. Ehrlich helped Emil von Behring find an antitoxin for diphtheria. Diphtheria is a disease that particularly affects children and sometimes leads to death. In 1894, mothers no longer had to worry about their child dying of diphtheria because of Ehrlich’s help in the discovery of the antitoxin for the deadly disease. Another discovery Ehrlich made was of a dye called trypan red. Trypan red helped destroy cells that caused sleeping sickness. His research of antibodies and understanding how the antibodies attack harmful substances that enter the body has made him the "founder" of modern chemotherapy. Ehrlich is best known for his work on curing syphilis. Syphilis is an infectious disease transmitted by sexual contact or kissing. Ehrlich named the compound that cured syphilis "salvarsan". This was a very effective way to cure syphilis. II. Background A. Family Paul Ehrlich was born on March 14, 1854 in Strehlen, Silesia. Ehrlich was born in to a middle-class, Jewish family. He was the only son and fourth child of Ismar and Rosa Ehrlich. His father owned a small distillery. Ehrlich had an Orthodox Jewish upbringing in a time when being a Jew was controversial. B. Childhood When Ehrlich was six years old he started his schooling at the local primary school. At age ten, he boarded with a professor’s family in Breslau and went to St. Maria Magdalena Humanistic Gymnasium. Ehrlich was often at the top of his class and his best subjects were math and Latin. C. Advanced Education and Training Ehrlich took an introductory course in natural sciences at Breslau University in 1872. He then went to Strasbourg for three semesters. In 1874, Ehrlich returned to Breslau where he completed his medical degree studies. In 1877, he passed the state medical examination. In 1878 he received his medical degree. III. Research and Development A. Discussion of the Area of Biology Most of Ehrlich’s discoveries had something to do with the immune system. The immune system is a body system that is responsible for destroying disease-causing cells. When Ehrlich was still in school, he was staining white blood cells to see their different characteristics with his work on antibodies, he is knows as the "founder" of modern chemotherapy.

Chem 238 Final Exam

CHEM 238 Winter, 2001 FINAL EXAM Name Prof. Sasaki Please circle your TA: Dirk Schweitzer , Tyan Carter, Carla McDowell 175 points TOTAL Good Luck! Note: Only answers in the box will be graded. _______________________________________________________________________ _ 1. (30) (a) Draw a stepwise mechanism for the following reaction. Use curved arrows to indicate the movement of electrons. O O H3 C H+ HO OH CH3 O H3 C O CH3 O . (b) Briefly explain the fact that, although hemiacetal formation between methanol and cyclohexanone is thermodynamically disfavored, addition of methanol to cyclopropane goes essentially to completion.O CH3OH HO OCH3 O , cyclopropanone cyclohexanone CHEM 238 page 2 Name . 2. (35) A ? , ? -unsaturated carbonyl compound rearranges to a more stable conjugated ? ,? -unsaturated compound in the presence of either acid or base. O H+ or OHO A ! ,†-unsaturated carbonyl compound A #,! -unsaturated carbonyl compound (a) Propose a mechanism for the base-catalyzed rea rrangement. (b) Propose a mechanism for the acid-catalyzed rearrangement. CHEM 238 page 3 Name . 3. (35) Predict the structures of the products or starting materials in the following equations.Show stereochemistry when it is known. (a) O P + CH3 (b) H3 CO 1) BH3 :THF 2) H2 O2 , OH- (c) H3 C 1) Mg, THF H3 CO Br 2) D2 O (d) O H3 C O H N CH3 HNO3 H2 SO4 (e) O O O 1) NH2 -NH2 2) NaOH, heat CHEM 238 page 4 Name . 4. (35) (a) Provide a reasonable synthesis for the following compounds from the indicated materials. You may use any reagents that you wish to use. (a) CH2 OH from CH2 OH CH3 CH2 O O OCH2 CH3 and compounds with 4 carbons or less O (b) O from benzene and any compounds with 2 carbons or less.CHEM 238 page 5 Name . 5. (35) A number of plants produce chemical substances that prevent insects from feeding on them. Some steps in the synthesis of such a compound, called an antifeedant, are shown bellow. Supply reagents for the transformations. (The wavy lines indicate either that stereo chemistry is not known or that a mixture of stereoisomers may exist. ) H3 C O H3 C O O A H3 C H3 C B H3 C H3 CO O OH H C H3 CO O D H3 C H CH2 H3 C H3 CO O EtO- Na+ EtOH H3 C H3 CO O O H O H E H3 C O H3 C H CH2 A: B: C: D: E:

Modern Day Torture Used by the Government

Techniques Is the governments way of saying torture. This Is very prevalent in George Rowel's dyspepsia novel â€Å"1984. † In the last section of the book, the main character Winston is tortured severely for going against Big Brother and then killed right after. They brainwashed him in the process and got him to believe in things he knew weren't true. As horrifying that is, it strangely resembles the way the united States government gets information. Though it Is In no way proven to always get accurate Information, the US along with many other countries still use this Orwellian method of control.The question is why. In 1984, Winston was being tortured as a result of him rebelling against Big Brother. The reason the Party tortured him was because they didn't want him to die a martyr. They wanted to completely alter the way he thought and make him believe anything they said. Though he hated the Party originally, after torture he was convinced that, â€Å"He had won the victory over himself. He loved Big Brother† (Orwell 245). To torture information out of someone is one thing but to change the way they think about something they are strongly opinionated about is another.This Just shows how much torture he went through and how damaging is was. The Party accomplished their mission in changing his mindset, which is much different than the goals when torturing modern day. Today, torture is used to accomplish a much deferent task. The mall purpose Is to extract Information from people, usually terrorists. When officials get no results after Interrogating a terrorist, they might use enhanced Interrogation techniques. This is a nice way of saying that they physically and psychologically torture information out of them. The reason is they are desperate.If the officials hind America is waiting for them to find good information, they will get it regardless of how false it is or how inhumane they must be to get it. Even though it is very possible they are bei ng told lies, officials use that Information because they are either desperate for a lead or want to back something up. A fairly recent example Is Bush with the Iraq war. He himself approved of advanced Interrogation techniques and did not seem very sorrowful after seeing images of American soldiers torturing Iraq prisoners. Bush seemed to wave the image off saying they were just a,†few bad apples,† (Bush CTD in Johnson).He saw little significance in this story suggesting he was not surprised nor appalled. In 1984, It seems that torture Is almost always successful. The Party's goal Is to make the torture victim believe anything they say, even if it goes against everything the person believes. They are then no longer a martyr and are killed as a lover of Big Brother. However. It is hard to say if anyone really succeeds when torturing modern day. Torturing usually results in three things; false information, psychologically and physically harmed individuals, and disappointe d looks from many other nations.It is dangerous to put value Into any Information received through torture because It can it. If they genuinely know nothing about what they are being tortured for, they will still continuously be tortured until they speak. Bush falsely accused Iraq of holding Weapons of Mass Destruction (Wands) by doing this. This helped spark the Iraq war and lead to the death of thousands of people including innocent civilians. Torture also leads to the physical and psychological pain of the torture victim. In 1984, both of these are evident when Orwell described Cilia's face and with Winston hanged mindset after being tortured.In America, evidence of torture is usually not visible on the persons body because many versions of torture are more psychological than physical. Some examples are water boarding or Chinese water torture. Water boarding is the act of trying someone down, putting a rag over their mouth and pouring water over it to mimic the feeling if drownin g. They wait until the person begins suffocating to take the rag off for a quick break to ask for information. Chinese water torture is restraining someone on a bed so they cannot move (usually their ands are tied above their head and their head is in a head restraint so it cannot move at all).They simply let water drop on your forehead one drop at a time usually alone in a room. As time passes, the psychological terror builds up in the victim and they eventually beg for it to stop. Other countries and also Americans see this treatment and begin to question the government. They question the methods of obtaining information and what the government considers inhumane treatment. This questioning does not happen in 1984 because no one knows what happens when someone vanishes and if they so much as questioned Big Brother they would be unwished.Today's society is much better because we can question our government and protestor our opinions without being tortured and killed. Orwellian meth od of torture is used to get people to believe in what the government wants them to believe. Modern day torture is used to get people to give information supporting what the government believes and what it wants to hear. Today, if the government uses torture all they will receive is false information, disappointed looks from American citizens and other nations, and psychologically and physically harmed people.

Assessment of Students’ Satisfaction on the Restructured Essay Example

Assessment of Students’ Satisfaction on the Restructured Essay Example Assessment of Students’ Satisfaction on the Restructured Essay Assessment of Students’ Satisfaction on the Restructured Essay 1. 0 Introduction At the University of Ghana there are studies that suites originally built to take two pupils. are now officially allocated to five pupils ( after minor alterations ) . but on the side occupied by every bit many as eight or nine – to the cognition of the university governments! Apart from the obvious hygiene and wellness jeopardies posed. what sort of atmosphere does this provide for survey after categories? All of which have brought most African universities to a province of serious impairment. This is apparent non merely to those who work or study in those universities but to even the most insouciant visitant. – ( Association of African Universities. 2004 ) Housing is a basic human demand in all societies and cardinal right of every person. In advanced states. lodging is more accessible to all classs of people including the hapless and the needy as a consequence of subsidies from the authorities. The state of affairs is non the same in developing states of the universe . In Ghana. for illustration. handiness to lodging by the hapless is rather a hard state of affairs which is worsened by the rough economic conditions and hapless enabling environment. Likewise. accessing lodging installations by Ghanese pupils at the university is no exclusion. particularly where such university happens to be the dream finish of most Ghanaians come ining into third establishment. In third establishments worldwide. the proviso of adjustment to the students’ population takes different theoretical accounts. This includes ; non-residential. where pupils beginning for their ain adjustment. Residential. where the university houses all its pupils and dual-residential. where the university houses its pupil population for a period of clip merely. likely the first and concluding twelvemonth. while the pupils during the staying period beginning for their ain adjustments. The experiences of pupils in third establishments in sourcing and procuring for their ain adjustment around university communities are likely to be interesting and important. However. it is deserving observing that. University of Ghana. the nation’s Prime Minister university has gone through a series of development when it comes to how to suit its pupils. both undergraduates and graduate students. 1. 1 Research job University of Ghana has undergone a series of reforms when it comes to the residential policy for its pupils. The of all time increasing figure of enrollees in the establishment is what defines this restructuring of the policy regulating students’ adjustment over clip. In the past two old ages what the incumbent frailty Chancellor of the Exchequer of the university term as Decongestion has taken topographic point in expectancy to the fulfilment of the university accomplishing efficiency in its field of operation. The thrust has besides been fast tracked by his informal end that the university should accomplish a world-class position. Effective August. 2011. the university efficaciously implemented its decongestion policy apportioning suites to a upper limit of three ( 3 ) pupils and four ( 4 ) pupils in the chief halls and extensions severally. This was done to turn to the jobs of overcrowding that resulted in inauspicious effects of hapless sanitation. force per unit area on residential public-service corporations such as reading suites and libraries. kitchen and washrooms. among other hapless conditions for effectual personal surveies by pupils. Residential installations have been increased to do the policy successful. Even though. the job of unequal adjustment for pupils is non wholly solved. the restructuring have been effectual since its execution. and it is deserving look intoing the effects of the new policy. whether it has achieved its end or it is towards accomplishing its intended end or otherwise. 1. 2 Purpose of the survey The chief ground why this research is being conducted is to measure the satisfaction of pupils with the current students’ residential policy and its effects on their surveies. 1. 3 Aims of the survey Specific aims of the survey are as follows: 1. To assess pupils perceptual experience of sanitation in the halls/hostels now. 2. To assess pupils perceptual experience of security in the halls/hostels now. 3. To look into pupils handiness to some basic hall/hostel public-service corporations. 1. 4 Research Questions 1. What is students’ perceptual experience of sanitation in the halls/hostels now? 2. What is students’ perceptual experience of security and comfort in the halls/hostels now? 3. What is the handiness position of pupils to basic halls/hostels public-service corporations now? 1. 5 Relevance of the survey As a top university in Ghana and Africa and one which is endeavoring to achieve a universe category position. adequate installations should be provided and already bing 1s improved. particularly criterions of services and installations which include supplying contributing on-campus pupil lodging installation. The above research provides the foundation for this survey and high spots the countries of new cognition which are needed ; to concentrate upon students’ satisfaction of residential installations in University of Ghana. A cardinal inquiry is what is the degree of students’ satisfaction with respects to the pupils lodging installation ( SHF ) in the context of University of Ghana? The survey contributes to a better apprehension of SRS of UG. The consequences offer valuable feedback to the university governments. installation directors and university hostel/hall decision makers in footings of the present criterions or the demand for farther betterment of the SHF through effectual designs and direction. The consequences will assist to explicate guidelines in footings of allotment of suites to pupils. care and for future developments of pupil lodging guaranting that the university is able to supply equal and modern-day on-campus SHF. 2. 0 Literature Review 2. 1 Introduction This subdivision reviews bing literature on the pupil residential installations. It is chiefly made up of old surveies. diaries. articles. periodicals amongst other beginnings. They form the secondary beginning of informations to the survey. 2. 2 The Concept of Student Residential Facility Student lodging has long been regarded as an indispensable constituent of the installations provided by the higher acquisition establishments in helping pupils to spread out their rational capablenesss. Harmonizing to Hassanain ( 2008 ) . good planned pupil lodging installations ( SHF ) promote desirable educational results and aid to accomplish the broader aims such as societal coherence and responsible citizenship. An earlier survey by Zahran ( 1972 ) reveals that a good pupil lodging promotes interactions between roomies of different backgrounds and specialisations ; and therefore broadens the students’ cognition. Amole ( 2005 ) argues that installations such as survey countries or meeting topographic points for academic treatments and societal assemblages provided in the pupil lodging will promote informal rational activities outside the students’ ain modules. Price et Al. ( 2003 ) related student interpersonal growing to adequate installations and Fay ( 1981 ) high lighted the importance of students’ satisfaction in the SHF as a scheme to heighten pupil development. Despite the importance of SHF. small literature is available to measure pupil sentiments of their lodging installations. Most surveies on post-occupancy rating focal point on household lodging either public or private abodes. look intoing the interaction between owner-occupiers or renters and their lodging scenes. Majority of these surveies utilized the construct of lodging satisfaction when measuring the interactions between the occupants and their physical environment ( Amole. 2009b ) . Arguing that lodging satisfaction can take towards bettering individual’s quality of life. Salleh ( 2008 ) investigates brooding. lodging services and neighbourhood factors that influence the occupants of private low-priced lodging in Malaysia. The survey revealed that the occupants are more satisfied with their brooding units and lodging services if compared to their vicinity installations. Elsinga and Hoekstra ( 2005 ) survey lodging satisfaction among European communities and happen out th at except in Austria. householders are more satisfied than the renters because homeownership provides security. freedom and fiscal benefits. In contrast. James ( 2008 ) analyses the influence of age and type of ownership on the degree of satisfaction and establishes that tenant satisfaction additions with the age at a much faster rate than the type of homeownership. However. pupil lodging and household lodging are non the same. Student lodging comprises of basic sleeping room units with other shared installations such as bathrooms. lavatories. wash. kitchens. common sofas and cafeterias located either per floor degree. per block or for the whole pupil lodging adjustment ( Amole. 2009a ) . On the contrary. the basic unit for household lodging is a house which includes sleeping rooms. bathrooms. lavatories and a living country all as portion of the unit with other lodging installations such as resort area. stores and school at the vicinity ( Parkes et al. . 2002 ) . In add-on. pupil lodging offers limited security of ownership and freedom if compared to household lodging. Therefore. the above findings may non use in the context of pupil lodging. Surveies on residential satisfaction ( RS ) from the pupil position are largely focused on factors impacting RS ; such as grounds for pupils to keep their old abode ( Cleave. 1996 ) and forecasters of pupil residential satisfaction ( SRS ) ( Foubert et al. . 1998 ; Khozaei et Al. . 2010b ) . There are besides surveies on pupil lodging with narrower Scopess such as the effects of floor tallness on congestion ( Kaya and Erkip. 2001 ) ; students’ perceptual experiences on indoor comfort ( Dahlan et Al. . 2009 ) ; students’ sense of fond regard with a peculiar pupil lodging ( Khozaei et al. . 2010a ) ; get bying schemes for pupils remaining in pupil lodging ( Amole. 2005 ) and the relationship between satisfaction and degrees of environment ( Amole. 2009b ) . These surveies offer small counsel as to whether the pupils are satisfied with SHF provided. Among the limited surveies on SRS are surveies by Amole ( 2007. 2009a ) . Hassanain ( 2008 ) and Radder and Han ( 2009 ) . Amole ( 2007. 2009a ) investigates RS among pupils in Nigeria and the findings indicated a low satisfaction with the SHF provided. Radder and Han ( 2009 ) researched student satisfaction degrees in South Africa and the findings indicated once more a degree of dissatisfaction with campus abodes. Alternatively. Hassanain ( 2008 ) found that pupils in Saudi Arabia indicated a degree of satisfaction with the SHF provided. However. the surveies were conducted in states where the civilization and clime are different from that experienced in the Southeast Asia part. which is likely to impact the sensed environment of the built environment. Therefore. the consequences of the surveies may non be applicable to the survey context. 2. 3 Development of the adjustment construction Originally. halls in the university were built to suit two pupils per room. This proviso was equal for pupils because non many people sought for higher instruction. However. as the population of Ghana increased and the demand to seek higher instruction became outstanding in the state. the figure pupils enrolled each academic twelvemonth increased quickly every bit good. Residential installations were increased and expanded to suit the of all time increasing figure of pupil consumption which demanded restructuring of pupil residential policy given the limited resources the university had. In the thick of the reforms. beyond the enlargement and alteration of the original suites to suit two individuals at a clip. the figure increased to five ( 5 ) in a room officially. both in the chief halls and the extensions. The uninterrupted addition in the pupil consumption amidst the unexpanded residential installations meant that. non all pupils could be accommodated on campus. hence. private inns began to jump up to absorb the extra pupils who could non procure adjustment on campus. The private inns motive to do net income meant that they charge high monetary values which were intolerable by many pupils. This brought about one of the outstanding footings that everyone who has passed through the four walls of the University of Ghana is popular with Perching . 2. 4 The issue of Perching The word connotes pupils who illicitly portion residential installations with official residents of a room. This resulted in overcrowding in the halls. seting utmost force per unit area on washrooms. reading suites. hall libraries. dry lines. among other installations that were originally constructed for two people. This was go oning who many reforms were traveling on. The two most popular reforms were the in-out-out-in and the in-out-out-out policies. The former meant that. all first twelvemonth pupils were qualified for adjustment on campus. this making did non intend automatic allotment of suites to freshers but allotment was capable vote for a YES or NO and 2nd and 3rd twelvemonth pupils were to look for their ain adjustment. Under this policy. concluding twelvemonth pupils like first twelvemonth pupils besides qualified to be accommodated on campus ; it is nevertheless. deserving observing that. even for the concluding twelvemonth pupils. because of the limited figure of suites available. allotment of suites was besides done via balloting a yes or no by pupils. The latter policy. in-out-out-out raised a batch of superciliums as it meant that merely first twelvemonth pupils were offered adjustment on campus. And for this policy allotment to level 100 pupils was automatic and assured. With this policy in topographic point the job of perching worsened. The official figure of residents in a room about doubled for about all the halls of abode. The inauspicious effects of hapless state of affairs created a batch of jobs ; hapless sanitation. insecurity. uncomfortableness. which had direct impact on students’ wellness. hygiene. and efficiency. 2. 5 The current residential policy The University of Ghana Hostels with a capacity of 26000 beds. which was to be built at the University of Ghana. Legon. with partnership between the university and six Bankss was a dream come alive every bit long as happening a solution to the perennial job of adjustment in our public universities is concerned this was an averment made by Professor C. N. B. Tagoe. Vice Chancellor of the university of Ghana ( GhanaWeb. 2008 ) . From the above statement I would to admit the Contingency theory one of the outstanding schools under the Open Systems position of Organizations. This theory as a subdivision of systems design emphasizes that design determinations are dependent on environmental conditions. Contingency theory is guided by the general orienting hypothesis that organisations whose internal characteristics match the demands of their environments will accomplish the best version. Lawrence and Lorsch ( 1967 ) . who coined the label contingency theory . argue that different environments topographic point differing demands on organisations. In a recent reappraisal article. Lawrence ( 1993 ) provides a partial list of factors that one or another theoretician has considered of import. They include size or graduated table. engineering. geographics. uncertainness. single sensitivities of participants. resource dependence. national or cultural differences. range and organisational life rhythm. With concentration on the resource dependence factor. it is declarative that. the version and realisation of the said solution was to a great extent contingent on the proviso of fiscal resources by the six Bankss which are external to the organisation. As the resources from the external environment was provided by the six Bankss. the enlargement of the residential installations have been a world so. doing it possible to set up four different inns which accommodates about 7. 120 pupils. It is a combination of these factors that made it possible for the decongestion exercising in the five traditional halls executable. Currently. some of the inns have been restructured into halls and run as the traditional halls. The criterion suites accommodate four ( 4 ) individuals as the extensions do. With other rigorous steps put in topographic point to command perching it is believed that. the intent for which this restructuring was done is being worked towards. It must be stated flatly that. the chief ground for this exercising is to better students’ efficiency in the university. 2. 6 Halls of Residence/Hostels The University believes in community life as an indispensable portion of pupil life. It is hence chiefly residential. supplying adjustment in Halls of Residence for both undergraduate and post-graduate pupils every bit good as flats and guest suites for senior members and invitees. There are five halls of abode ( available to all pupils ) and several Hostels. The present Halls and Hostels are as follows: Each Hall consists of junior members ( pupils ) and senior members ( academic and senior administrative and professional staff ) . and is managed by a Council consisting members elected by individuals belonging to the Hall. The Master ( or Warden in the instance of Volta Hall ) is the Head of the Hall. Each Hall has Junior and Senior Common Rooms for pupils and Faculty. severally. A tutorial system offers an chance for reding pupils and guaranting their public assistance at both academic and societal degrees. Students maintain interaction with each other and the wider community throu gh recognized nines and societies. Each Hall has a kitchen and a dining hall to provide for students’ eating. Chapels and a mosque are besides available for usage by assorted spiritual denominations. A Chaplaincy Board co-ordinate the activities of spiritual groups. Social life on the campus is organised chiefly by the Students’ Representative Council and the Junior Common Room Committees which provide assorted sorts of societal programmes. LEGON HALL: Legon Hall was the first to be built on the lasting site of the University of Ghana at Legon and is. hence. the Premier Hall of the University. Its foundation tablet was laid during the Michaelmas Term of 1951 and. in September 1952. the first undergraduates were accepted into abode. On Trinity Sunday. 31st May 1953. the first service was held in the Chapel and the first repast served in the Dining Hall. From these events. the Hall took Trinity Sunday every twelvemonth as its birthday. celebrated by a common Feast for both its Junior and Senior Members. The Hall’s slogan. Cui Datum ( To whom much is given†¦ ) . was selected from St. Luke’s Gospel. in acknowledgment of the particular duty attached to the Hall’s senior status. Senior Members of the University may be assigned as Fellows of the Hall by the Vice Chancellor and they normally keep their Family for every bit long as they remain with the University. Persons of academic differentiation outside the University may be elected as Honorary Fellows at a General Meeting of Fellows. The remainder of the rank of the Hall is made up of individuals in statu pupillari. The regulating organic structure of the Hall is the Hall Council. members of which are Fellows of the Hall. The chief Hall Officers are: The Master. the Vice-Master. the President of the Senior Common Room. the Senior Tutor. and the Hall Bursar. AKUAFO HALL: Akuafo Hall was established with the assignment of Professor D. A. Taylor. a Master-designate and a Hall Council in 1953. The Hall Council in 1954 decided to call the Hall Akuafo to mark the generous gesture of the husbandmans of Ghana in giving money for the foundation of the University College. A crest which depicts a chocolate tree. an unfastened book and a membranophone. designed by Professor W. J. McCallien. and a slogan. laboremus et sapiamus. suggested by Professor L. H. Ofosu-Appiah. were adopted by the Council. A commemorating plaque with a Latin lettering composed by Professor L. H. Ofosu-Appiah was set up to demo the gratitude of the Hall to the husbandmans of the state and to the British Government who gave the University College financess for the edifice of the Hall. The Hall was officially opened on 17 February. 1956. but the first pupils. totaling 131. came into abode on the fifth October. 1955. The Hall has its ain legislative acts regulating the election of officers and the disposal of its personal businesss. Once a twelvemonth. the Maestro has to convene a meeting of the Fellows. who form the regulating organic structure. to have his one-year study. The Senior Common Room is unfastened to all Fellows and their invitees. and the Senior Combination Room to all senior members of the University. Senior Members may besides ask for pupils to the Combination Room. COMMONWEALTH HALL: The first batch of pupils was admitted into abode in Commonwealth Hall at the beginning of the 1956-1957 academic twelvemonth. In the Lent Term of that academic twelvemonth. Ghana attained its independency from Great Britain. and the Hall. hitherto known as the Third Hall. was officially christened Commonwealth Hall to mark Ghana’s admittance into the Commonwealth of Nations. The official gap of the Hall was performed in March. 1957. It is. so far. the lone all-male Hall of Residence in the University. The slogan of the Hall. Truth Stands. was taken from a citation from Satyre by John Donne ( 1572-1631 ) : On a immense hill. cragged. and steep. Truth bases and hee that will Reach her. about must. and about must goe This slogan combines both the physical state of affairs of the Hall ( on a hillside overlooking most of the University and beyond ) and the proper chase of a University instruction. the hunt for truth. It is the lone Hall of Residence in the University which has a theater and Amphitheatre for talks and dramas. The Coat of Arms of the Hall depicts the strength and integrity of intent of members of the Hall derivation from the bonds of association enjoyed by the single members of the Hall. High Commissioners of the Commonwealth states in Ghana are accorded Honorary Membership of the Hall. There is a Hall Council which administers the personal businesss of the Hall. assisted by the Tutorial Board and the Senior Common Room Committee. VOLTA HALL: Volta Hall started as the Fourth Hall in the 1959-60 academic twelvemonth. on 16th November. 1960. The University College Council. on the recommendation of the Hall Council. named it Volta Hall. The Hall consists of the chief hall originally designed to suit 82 pupils. and an extension with an original capacity for suiting 198 pupils. the business of which began in January 1966. The slogan of the Hall. chosen during the Hall’s 10th anniversary jubilations. is in the Akan linguistic communication and it is: Akokobere Nso Nyim Adekyee. This means that the secret or cognition of life and nature is a gift to adult females as it is to work forces. The Hall has a regulating Body which comprises all the Fellows assigned to it and those elected by the assigned Fellows. The authorities of the Hall rests with this organic structure which delegates some of its powers to a Hall Council. The Hall Council consists of 10 members. including the Warden. the Deputy Warden. the Senior Tutor and the Bursar who are ex-officio members. The daily disposal of the Hall is carried out by the Warden with the aid of the Senior Tutor. who deals with all students’ personal businesss. and the Bursar. MENSAH SARBAH HALL: Mensah Sarbah Hall. the 5th Hall of the University. stands in the southern portion of the campus. The Hall consists of a chief Hall built around a quadrilateral and a figure of Annexes standing to the North and E. The last two south extensions are attached to the Hall. Until October 1991. Mensah Sarbah was the lone coeducational Hall of Residence in the University. which made it rather alone among the Halls. The regulating organic structure of the Hall is the Council. which is responsible to the full organic structure of Fellows who form the Senate. Students’ personal businesss are handled by students’ ain elective authorities headed by a President. while the general disposal of the Hall is under the Maestro who is assisted by the Senior Tutor and Tutors on the one manus and the Bursar o n the other. Other Hall Military officers are the Chaplain. who is responsible for the Roman Catholic Chapel. the Prayer Room Warden. who is responsible for the Protestant Chapel. and the Librarian. Senior Common Room personal businesss are managed by an elective commission under the President of the Senior Common Room. The Hall is named after the celebrated Ghanese legal expert. author and solon. John Mensah Sarbah of Cape Coast. It has been customary for the Hall to observe the birthday day of remembrance of this great adult male every twelvemonth. This anniversary is known as Sarbah Day and is highlighted by a dinner and a get-together. The Hall has a crest designed to convey out the chief characteristics of Mensah Sarbah’s life. It consists of three elements: a brace of graduated tables. a stool with a book resting upon it. and a hill surmounted by a palace. The graduated table signifies the legal profession. the stool and the book symbolise civilization while the hill and the palace are intended to picture the familiar landscape of Cape Coast with its many hills and garrisons. At the same clip. the palace is intended to symbolize strength and honor. The Hall’s slogan is: Knowledge. Honour. Service – three words which competently summarise the guiding rules of Mensah Sarbahà ¢â‚¬â„¢s life. VALCO TRUST HOSTELS: The thought to construct a alumnus inn was foremost nurtured when Legon Hall Annex C was prepared entirely for graduate pupils of the Hall. The pursuit for a suited adjustment for alumnus pupils gained attending when Valco Trust Fund offered to finance the building of a alumnus inn. As a farther encouragement to this class. Legon Hall Annex C was converted into an Annex of the Hostel. The Valco Trust Hostel. donated to the University by the Valco Trust Fund to ease force per unit area on pupil adjustment. is a block of purpose-built. self-contained flats for 190 pupils. The Hostel. which was completed in June 1997. is the University’s first inn for alumnus pupils. A 2nd block with similar installations was opened in January 2006. Located behind Mensah Sarbah Hall on the southern portion of the campus. the flats are arranged in individual and dual survey sleeping rooms with en suite shower and lavatory. There is a shared kitchen for every 12 suites. Facilities in the inns include common suites. washrooms and a eating house. INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS’ HOSTELS: The International Student’s Hostels are located on the southern portion of the campus off the route to the Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research. For a long clip. it had been the dream of the University of Ghana to make and beef up links with other universities in order to heighten the international pupil presence on campus. The first stage was commissioned in June 1999 and the 2nd in January 2006. The Hostels are co-educational and each has 43 individual suites and 85 dual suites. In add-on. there are installations such as a well-fortified security system. kitchenettes and eating houses. Mentions Amole. D. ( 2005 ) . Coping schemes for life in pupil residential installations in Nigeria . Environment and Behaviour. Vol. 37. pp. 201-19. Amole. D. ( 2009b ) . Residential satisfaction in students’ housing . Journal of Environment Psychology. Vol. 29. pp. 76-85. Association of African Universities ( 2004 ) . Challenges Confronting African Universities: Selected Issues . African Studies Review ( 2004 ) Vol. 47. No. 1. 1-59 Dahlan. N. . Jones. P. . Alexander. D. . Salleh. E. and Alias. J. ( 2009 ) . Evidence base prioritization of indoor comfort perceptual experiences in Malayan typical multi-storey hostels . Building and Environment. pp. 2158-65. Elsinga. M. and Hoekstra. J. ( 2005 ) . Homeownership and lodging satisfaction . Journal of Housing and the Built Environment. Vol. 20. pp. 401-24. Fay. G. ( 1981 ) . A theoretical account for reexamining growing environments . Journal of College and University Student Housing. Vol. 11 No. 1. pp. 46-7. Foubert. J. D. . Tepper. R. and Morrison. D. R. ( 1998 ) . Predictors of pupil satisfaction in university abode halls . Journal of College and University Student Housing. Vol. 21No. 1. pp. 41-6. Hassanain. M. A. ( 2008 ) . On the public presentation rating of sustainable pupil lodging facilities . Journal of Facilities Management. Vol. 6 No. 3. pp. 212-25. James. R. N. ( 2008 ) . Residential satisfaction of aged renters in flat housing . Social Indicators Research. Vol. 89. pp. 421-37. James. R. N. ( 2008 ) . Residential satisfaction of aged renters in flat housing . Social Indicators Research. Vol. 89. pp. 421-37. Kaya. N. and Erkip. F. ( 2001 ) . Satisfaction in a residence hall edifice: the effects of floor tallness on the perceptual experience of room size and crowding . Environment A ; Behavior. Vol. 33 No. 1. pp. 35-53. Khozaei. F. . Hassan. A. S. and Khozaei. Z. ( 2010a ) . Undergraduate students’ satisfaction with inn and sense of fond regard to topographic point: instance survey of universiti sains Malaysia . American Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences. Vol. 3 No. 3. pp. 516-20. Lawrence. Paul R. and Jay W. Lorsch. ( 1967 ) Organization and environment Boston ; Harvard University. Division of Research. Graduate School of Business Administration. Parkes. A. . Kearns. A. and Atkinson. R. ( 2002 ) . What makes people dissatisfied with their vicinities? . Urban Studies. Vol. 39 No. 13. pp. 2413-38. Price. I. . Matzdorf. F. . Smith. L. and Agahi. H. ( 2003 ) . The impact of installations on pupil pick of university . Facilities. Vol. 21 No. 10. pp. 212-22. Radder. L. and Han. Ten. ( 2009 ) . Service quality of on-campus pupil lodging: a South African experience . The International Business A ; Economics Research Journal. Vol. 8 No. 11. pp. 107-19. Salleh. A. G. ( 2008 ) . Neighbourhood factors in private low-priced lodging in Malaysia . Habitat International. Vol. 32. pp. 485-93. World Wide Web. ghanaweb. com. ( Tuesday. 8th January. 2008 ) retrieved on 4th October. 2012. World Wide Web. ug. edu. gh ( 2012 ) retrieved on 10th October. 2012 World Wide Web. ug. edu. gh ( 2012 ) retrieved on 2nd November. 2012 World Wide Web. ug. edu. gh ( 2012 ) retrieved on 5th November. 2012

How to Set Line Spacing in Microsoft Word - Proofread My Paper

How to Set Line Spacing in Microsoft Word - Proofread My Paper How to Set Line Spacing in Microsoft Word In the old days, getting a document written up neatly involved having a medieval monk painstakingly copy everything out by hand in elaborate illuminated script. Thankfully, now we have word processors, which makes life much simpler. As well as eliminating the need to hire a scribe, programs like Microsoft Word provide a range of formatting options to make sure your work is easy to read. In this post, for example, we take a look at how to set line spacing in Microsoft Word. What is Line Spacing? Why Does it Matter? Line spacing is the gap between lines of text in your document. College students are often told to use double spacing (i.e., a gap twice the height of the font) to enhance the clarity of their written work and so markers have space to leave feedback on a paper. How to Set Line Spacing Adjusting the spacing in a document is reassuringly easy thanks to the pre-defined settings in Microsoft Word (instructions apply to Word 2007 onwards): Select the text you want to adjust Find the â€Å"Paragraph† section on the â€Å"Home† tab Click on the line and paragraph spacing button to open the dropdown menu Select the desired line spacing (standard options range from 1.0 to 3.0) To double-space your document, simply click â€Å"2.0.† If you pick Line Spacing Options from the dropdown menu, you can also customize the spacing to suit your requirements. Taking Shortcuts If you find yourself regularly adjusting the spacing in your work, you could save time by using the keyboard shortcuts in Microsoft Word. For line spacing, these are: Line Spacing PC Mac 1.0 Ctrl + 1 Command + 1 1.5 Ctrl + 5 Command + 5 2.0 Ctrl + 2 Command + 2 To set the spacing in your document this way, simply select the passage(s) you want to modify and use the shortcut for the spacing desired. To select all text in the document, use Ctrl + A on PC or Command + A on Mac.

Kerosene in Diesel Engine Question

Kerosene in Diesel Engine Question Scott, you are right, we had discussed the clear liquid shortening and I thought I had stayed away from it until I saw the cubies. Yesterday, I went back to my supplier and commented about the mixing of Clear Liquid Oil and Clear Liquid Shortening. Undoubtedly, the grill cook was not aware the oil had been mixed until I saw it on the cubies and so Ive been told they have a new supplier and it will be only Clear Liquid Oil. I have asked them to keep the empty cubies for me, so I can use them for storage, etc. I will wait and see what happens. The kero I had mentioned mixing with my biodiesel is considered highway kero with taxes paid on it at the pump. In N.C. all of our kero is dyed, as well as off road diesel. Our DOT will spot check big rigs, but so far I havent heard of them checking small diesels. However, I never use dyed fuel in my pickup. Next door in S.C. all of the fuel is cheaper due to our state taxes being lower so the kero is actually cheaper than their diesel. Our kero is higher than our diesel and the diesel is 20 to 40 cents higher per gallon than our unleaded. Several years ago, I had an Olds with a GM diesel (converted gasoline to diesel) and the book allowed me to use 10 percent gasoline during the winter to keep the diesel from gelling. Do you think that would be wise to use gasoline in biodiesel during the winter? My friend that I was splitting the oil with has backed out of using SVO I think mainly due to the mods he would have to do to his truck. Anyway, he left me with some literature he had pulled off the internet about using SVO and unleaded gasoline. Im thinking that would be a great way to blow an engine or at least coke it pretty heavily in a short time. Looks like there is a little of everything on the net. Have a great day. Tom Hey Tom,As long as you can get highway kero, and its cheaper, go ahead and run it with a mixture of at least B20 to keep the lubricity up. Kerosene is often used as a thinning (viscosity reducing) agent to help prevent diesel (middle distillate grade #2) and biodiesel fuel gelling in cold weather, but it does reduce the fuels lubricity as well. Since biodiesel has a very high level of lubricity, the reduction from mixing with kerosene is minimal. With regular petro diesel, care must be taken to avoid over-thinning. To avoid this problem, most fuel distribution centers carry winter diesel (light distillate grade #1) for delivery to fueling stations in cold climates. Diesel engines, however, are remarkably tolerant of fuel formulations and can run on just about any low volatility oil based fuel, but of course that doesnt mean they should or that it is even legal (tax wise) or beneficial to do so. While the engines themselves (pistons and valves) are more or less indifferent to fuel types, the emissions and injection controls on modern clean diesel engines would likely be damaged by using any fuel other than ULSD or B5. For illustration purposes only, following is a (mostly complete) list of fuels that can be burned in a diesel engine: Diesel #1 Diesel #2 Diesel #4 ULSD (Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel) Biodiesel (from B5 to B100) Kerosene Home heating oil Civil jet fuel (Jet A-1, Jet A, Jet B) Military jet fuel(JP-4,JP-5,JP-8) SVO (Straight Vegetable And this is interesting- your fuel prices in the Carolinas are different than ours further north. In central PA as of 05-20-08: No, the E85 price is not a typo. Ethanol based fuel has been about a buck a gallon cheaper for the last several years. Ive been experimenting with varying percentages of E85 in my gasoline powered 5.7-liter 1994 Chevy Silverado. A story about my results as well as doing a full conversion to E85 is in the plans. Which brings me to your question about running a gasoline and SVO (straight vegetable oil) mixture in a diesel. I would steer clear for the very reasons you mentioned as well as others from horror stories Ive heard. Diesels are compression ignition engines designed for dense, low volatility oil based fuels (diesel, biodiesel and kerosene). Gasoline style engines are spark ignited and require light and highly volatile fuels (gasoline, alcohol and E85). It doesnt take a stretch of the imagination to understand that an improperly-mixed amount of gasoline and vegetable oil (too much gasoline) could easily prematurely ignite (detonate) and destroy a diesel engines pistons and/or va lvetrain. Reciprocally, Ive heard stories of mixtures with too much veggie oil gumming up and clogging filters, pumps and injectors. In my opinion, there are only two safe methods to run vegetable oil in a diesel engine: Use properly manufactured biodiesel, or install a conversion kit that heats (thus reducing viscosity) the SVO before introduction to the fuel pump and injectors. As always, Tom, thanks for the great comments and questions. Best,Scott

Culture Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Culture - Research Paper Example In his book, Tylor defined culture as â€Å"that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society† (Tylor cited in Haviland et al., 2013, p. 10). Culture is obviously not limited to men. Women’s role in the creation and possession of culture cannot be undermined. The concept of culture has become the mainstream topic in Anthropology ever since it was first used by Tylor. Culture is a very powerful survival tool for humans, though it is a sensitive phenomenon. Culture keeps changing constantly. Owing to the fact that culture is stored in the mind only, it can easily be lost as new trends set it. Culture is omnipresent and reflects in everything in the surroundings ranging from written languages to structures and events. The artifacts and broken pots discovered by the archaeologists from underneath the earth are such remains of old civilizations that define their cultural patterns. Old civilizations made those artifacts using their cultural skills and knowledge. People tend to identify cultures by observing materialistic things. â€Å"When we think of company culture, we focus on what we can see and touch – the foosball tables, happy hours, and free lunches. But these are only artifacts, what our culture produces. It’s much harder to pinpoint the root culture† (Wherry, 2014). Real culture is what causes people to purchase certain things and decorate the place with them. Culture as part of the learned patterns and perceptions of behavior has three layers. Cultural traditions play a pivotal role in giving a unique identity to a society. By Japanese, Italian, or Indian culture, people mean shared traditions, language, and beliefs that distinguish the people of one culture from those belonging to the other. In a vast majority of cases, people sharing a certain culture have

Garden City Concept Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Garden City Concept - Essay Example The city would be self sufficient until it reaches full population. When it reaches full population, another garden city will be developed nearby. (Wikipedia, 2009) A garden city is made different from others because the concept is planned for its objectives. It is to find the industrial population work for wages of a higher purchasing power and secure a healthier surroundings and regular employment. It is intended to offer a secure a new and better employment for the enterprising, the manufacturers, the cooperatives, the people engaged in the technical field, and to the many who are in various professions. It is a design for the opening of a new market for the talents and goods that are close to their doors. The objective is to raise the standard of health and comfort of the workers of whatever profession they have to offer. This is one way of achieving the natural and economic combination of a town and country life with its own municipality. An ideal garden city is to be built near the centre of a 6,000 acres land and it will cover about 1,000 acres of it. It may be planned in a circular manner. The radius of which could be a 1,240 yards. There would be 6 beautiful boulevards that is 120 feet wide and will traverse the city from the centre to its circumference dividing the city into 6 equal parts. There will also be 5 circumferential roads. A circular space in the centre is to be about 5.5 acres In this area will lay a beautiful well maintained garden. Around this garden will be the large public buildings such as the town hall, the lecture hall, theater, library, museum and a hospital. The rest of the space will contain the public park, which is an ample recreation ground with a very easy access to everybody. Running around the park is a wide arcade made of glass that will be called the crystal palace. The crystal palace is for the wet weather. This will be one of the favorite place of the people because it is very near the central park. One function of this building is that, manufactured goods are exposed for sale. A wide variety of goods to be sold here are of good quality. Shopping for goods in the crystal palace is indeed a joy of deliverance and selection. The enclosed space of the crystal palace is not only used for the manufactured goods for sale. A part of the crystal palace will be used as a winter garden. It forms as a permanent exhibition of a very attractive character while its circular form brings it near to every one living in town. The route around the crystal palace is the fifth avenue. The road is closely designed in a circular manner that it forms a circumferential road. The road side will be planted with trees that would contribute to the beauty of the place as you go around the crystal palace. A beautifully maintained garden adds to the beauty of the place. Moving away from the fifth avenue, you can take the grand avenue and move around to see the beautiful crystal palace on one side and the houses and gardens on the other side. The houses and gardens are designed such that you will find a ring of houses, very excellently built as each is standing on the ample grounds. There will be varied architecture and design which the houses and the group of houses, some will have common gardens and a cooperative kitchen. A circumferential r

History response Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

History response - Essay Example The poor felt they were only working hard and long hours without anything to show for their efforts but acting as mechanisms intended to cushion lives of the elite whom the majority were in the government and resided in posh regions. This is evident in the quote, which was a sentiment raised by a young laborer claiming despite how hard they toiled in order to make their lives better and bearable, employers were the sole determiners of their fate. Since, they mercilessly used policies to compel them in operating machines in their factories for long hours while in return offering extremely low wages that could not sustain them well where they lived. Based on this scenario, I tend to think most of them lost their jobs at a very high rate because employers had a big selection of choosing what they want and wished to pay in terms of labor. I wanted also to show the then lack of workers’ authority to influence determination of their salaries and wages. Employers especially the then manufacturing moguls enjoyed big margins due to cheap and easily available labor by willing people working long hours to earn more. This is to cater for numerous and even costly medical costs in their shanty residential areas. Therefore, employers in this case used meager earnings as a hook to retain poor laborers in their industries because they had no other options of earning the money they desperately needed for their daily sustenance. However, workers despite exploited by these moguls had the courage to voice their grievances. This is evident in the young man’s sentiments who without fear stood out to protest what he deemed was the then moguls’ state of exploiting poor laborers. Keen analysis of this sentiment brings out much untold exploitation despite being a short quote. For instance, the young lad contends of â€Å"oppressed on every hand† thus summarizing utter oppression and neglect even

Homeland Security Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Homeland Security - Research Paper Example Homeland Security, a relatively new agency was created by George Bush after the terrorist attacks on America. President George Bush established the agency so that there would be no more terrorist attacks on America. It can be said that The US Department of Homeland Security came into being in the wake of the 9/11 terrorists to keep America safe from natural and man-made disasters. The aim of this department was to undertake counter-terrorism measures, and in the event of an attack coordinate rescue and recovery actions. The mission statement of this agency is to prevent terrorist attacks and to keep the damages to a minimum and recover from attacks when they do occur. To address these challenges states have to do two things: 1) secure their territory from attack and 2) try to end the threats at their source. The Homeland Security agency helps the states to do this and also analyzes how America and other countries work towards achieving these goals. It suggests measures that states ma y have to take, such as creating a national infrastructure that is resistant to physical damage and augmenting domestic security. The program also explores how best countries can fight global terrorism by increasing cooperation between countries that are facing a common threat. It carries out activities like coordination between intelligence agencies, domestic nuclear detection and protection of top-level government officials. The department is made up of agencies that take care of customs and border protection, immigration and citizenship services, quick response and recovery during emergency and research in science and technology. Today homeland security measures include a wide range of efforts to prevent terrorist attacks. There are specific policies such as random baggage searches at airports, and broader policies for intelligence-gathering and law enforcement. The Department of Homeland Security in US has an annual budget of more

Que Onda Urban Youth Culture and Border Identity. BOOK Essay

Que Onda Urban Youth Culture and Border Identity. BOOK - Essay Example This means that the concept of identity is the people’s way of life and its effects on the political choice and affiliation. The author went further to postulate that the person’s identity may post a great challenge in the way the community relates to power and politics (Bejarano, 2005). Indeed, the aspects are more evidenced in the struggles, which characterize the cultural practices and social institutions about their daily lifestyle. In essence, the politics of identity determines the political direction along the boarder region (Bejarano, 2005). However, the fact that the cultural institutions and conditions in the area were extremely oppressive; it hindered the free articulation of the political situation. Notably, the only sign of relief on the politics of identity in the region would be a critical engagement and insight of the beliefs and cultural practices, considered to have significant impacts on the political players and scenes (Bejarano, 2005). For the Latinas/os along the boarder region, some of the factors, which influence identity development, include historical, biographical, institutional, and socio-cultural contexts (Bejarano, 2005). Notably, all the factors have meaningful contribution to the believability, intelligibility and relevance to the social context in the boarder region. On the historical factors, the Latinas/os have unique cultural beliefs that are considered to be controversial to the political development and affiliations, and the identity of the occupants (Bejarano, 2005). Notably, the historical oppression of the Latina/os could be traced from the American relationship with the Europeans. Though there were elements of multiculturalism in the region, the different groups of people, they had to hold their traditional cultural heritage as a form of identity (Bejarano, 2005). In addition, they had to acknowledge the oppression

Homeland Security Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Homeland Security - Research Paper Example Homeland Security, a relatively new agency was created by George Bush after the terrorist attacks on America. President George Bush established the agency so that there would be no more terrorist attacks on America. It can be said that The US Department of Homeland Security came into being in the wake of the 9/11 terrorists to keep America safe from natural and man-made disasters. The aim of this department was to undertake counter-terrorism measures, and in the event of an attack coordinate rescue and recovery actions. The mission statement of this agency is to prevent terrorist attacks and to keep the damages to a minimum and recover from attacks when they do occur. To address these challenges states have to do two things: 1) secure their territory from attack and 2) try to end the threats at their source. The Homeland Security agency helps the states to do this and also analyzes how America and other countries work towards achieving these goals. It suggests measures that states ma y have to take, such as creating a national infrastructure that is resistant to physical damage and augmenting domestic security. The program also explores how best countries can fight global terrorism by increasing cooperation between countries that are facing a common threat. It carries out activities like coordination between intelligence agencies, domestic nuclear detection and protection of top-level government officials. The department is made up of agencies that take care of customs and border protection, immigration and citizenship services, quick response and recovery during emergency and research in science and technology. Today homeland security measures include a wide range of efforts to prevent terrorist attacks. There are specific policies such as random baggage searches at airports, and broader policies for intelligence-gathering and law enforcement. The Department of Homeland Security in US has an annual budget of more

Service Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Service Management - Assignment Example The guitar was damaged which made Dave Carrols to come up with a video song and posted it on the You Tube with an aim of harming the company. The video tarnished the reputation of the Airline Flight and attracted more than one hundred and fifty thousand online audience (Thomas and Grà ©goire, p.2). The article indicates that the main reason why customers post their frustration online is due to anger as they feel that the organisations had betrayed them. Dave Carrols had pleaded severally with United Airlines Flight Airline regarding his destroyed guitar. However, the company did not act to assist him; the only way he could be heard was via the internet. Therefore, companies should listen to their customer’s problems to prevent customers from tarnishing their reputation. The article indicates that customers continue to hold a grudge against a company for a long time. Some even avoid transacting with such companies again in the future due to the fear that they might be betrayed. The article further indicate that companies may avoid complains made by their customers over the internet by acting fairly and compensating those who had been hart. In case a customer had made an online complain, the company should respond by making a sincere apology to the customer to prevent fur ther damages (Thomas and

Class Inequality Essay Example for Free

Class Inequality Essay Social class is one of the oldest and most persistent inequalities in British society. In the past, people were very aware of their social class and their expected roles and responsibilities. People would have worn different clothes, behaved in different ways and had a very different culture from each other and they would have accepted this as a perfectly normal element of behaviour. We are still aware today of some of the cultural differences between the social classes so that rich people and poorer people have different accents, are educated differently and wear different styles of clothes from each other. These cultural differences that separate the classes are known as indicators of class. In the past, many people also believed that people of the highest social classes were better than other people and should be respected because of their social position. This idea is known as deference. People nowadays are less willing to admit that social class is important. Poorer people may imitate the styles and behaviour of wealthy people by buying copies of their expensive clothes in cheaper shops or buying replicas and fakes. However, rich people often copy the street style of the working class people and their fashions. The differences between the classes seem to be blurred to such an extent that many people would not define their social class in the same way that sociologists might. Sociologists mostly believe that despite the way that people reject the idea of social classes, it is still important in our society. We are just less aware of it than people were in the past. It affects our life chances and our life styles, with high earning people enjoying a superior standard of living and better life chances than those from more deprived backgrounds. Subjective class can be measured by attitudes, beliefs and political opinions. This generally consists of the vague notions upper, middle and working class and most people would identify themselves as belonging to one of these groups. This type of description does not explain the full range of  differences between these groups. People may be middle class and have access to huge wealth, whereas others have the education, lifestyle and manners of the middle class but are relatively poor. Equally, people from a working class background who achieve very good professional jobs may well still feel themselves to be working class. In contrast, sociologists are concerned with objective class. This refers to our occupations, education, possessions and our wealth. It can be measured in the data put out by the Office of Population, Censuses and Surveys such as mortality lists. Sociologists have had limited success in attempts to measure social class objectively. There are two generally used scales of social class, though a very wide number have been devised by sociologists in the past. The Registrar Generals Index of Social Class was used by government statisticians till 2001, and is still widely used as a rough indicator of peoples background. It uses occupation as the basis of differentiation. People are placed in a five point scale. This is still used by advertisers and manufacturers who target products to certain markets. There are weaknesses with this class indicator because it does not take into account peoples income or their job security. In addition, women take their class from their male relatives. Most people are in class C or class 3. Since 2001, the class structure has been amended to take into account employment conditions including: job security, promotion opportunity and the ability and opportunity to work on their own and make own decision s about tasks. This new scale is known as the NS SEC. Goldblatt suggested alternative measures of class including home ownership, access to a car and educational status and he has shown that all of these can be correlated to inequalities in health. One of the most recent attempts to define the class system in a new and radical way was by Will Hutton (18995). Hutton is a critic of the New Right. He argues that social inequality, in the form of low wages, low skill and high unemployment, has resulted in a clearly divided and economically unstable society. Hutton has put forward the 30-30-40 thesis to show the three-way split in contemporary British class relations. He says our society can now be seen to consist of: 30% unemployed, low paid, insecure work; 30% with some job security and quality of life; 40% privileged workers in secure and regular employment. In addition, the nature of work which is a traditional measure of a persons class position is changing so the debates have become complex and theoretical. Certainly, inequality is an important social dynamic, but there is a question mark over whether this is related to social class or whether people even recognise class as significant in their lives. Marxists argue strongly that it is but that people do not recognise it for reasons related to deskilling and proletarianisation; feminists suggest other dynamics influence inequality and post-modernists suggest that the important dynamic is not class but the ability to spend money. 2 What is the link between class and occupation? Traditionally class has been linked to the type of work a person does. The debate as to the nature of class has therefore become more complex as the nature of work has changed. The upper classes are able to live off unearned income such as rents from land or property. There are so few of the upper classes that they are more or less invisible to sociologists. Very little research has been done on these people. Upper class people usually keep themselves to themselves and are not willing to participate in studies. Recent work by Adonis and Pollard (1998) stresses the significance of the upper class in modern British society and they consider that there is an emerging superclass that consist of an elite of extremely high paid managers and professionals. According to Adonis and Pollard, this new superclass is linked financially to the City of London, a male and upper class world that has many links with the traditions and heritage of public school and Oxbridge elites of the past. This superclass emerged from the financial changes of the 1980s and is composed of people who benefited from low taxation and privatisation of industry to become significant in international trading with global companies. They earn multi-million salaries and have large financial bonus packages. Papers tend to refer to them as Fat Cats. The middle classes live off professional work such as law, medicine or the ownership of a business. Generally they earn more and have better working conditions than the working class. Working class people work with their hands as tradesmen or labourers. Work with the hands is known as manual work. We still call professional people who sell knowledge rather than skills, non-manual workers. This is the basic social class division in society between manual and non-manual work. Middle class work requires educational qualifications and skills. Most people who are members of the middle classes will have been to university and gained higher level professional qualifications as well. Generally, middle class professional work is well paid or has good conditions and terms of service. In the past, there would have been quite serious differences in pay between professional workers and manual workers though these differences have been eroded. C Wright Mills (1956) and others have seen the middle classes as divided into two groups. The higher professions have the potential for high earnings and who are self-employed or employed by large corporations. These are people such as judges, accountants, lawyers, dentists, doctors. These people tend to control entry into their occupations. The lower professions are often, though not exclusively, feminised and work in the public sector. They have limited access to high earnings and include teachers, nurses, and social workers. The lower middle classes have become more like the working class according to the Marxist, Braverman (1974) who points out that many of the professions, such as architects, have become vulnerable to redundancies. He also claims that skills are being lost (de-skilling) because mechanisation means that individuals are now being taken over by technology. People are no longer required to undertake tasks that traditionally required talent. Tradesmen have lost their skills to machines, and architects plans can be created by computer programmes. Others, such as teachers or opticians who are unable to control entry into their professions are no longer able to claim high rates of pay as there is always demand for work and people who are willing to  accept low rates in return for employment. Oppenheimer (1973) has also suggested that the middle classes have lost power and authority in work. Working class work may require high levels of skill and effort: however, because it is manual work, it is not generally well paid and often is of relatively low status. In addition, although years of on-the-job training may be involved in such work, people will not have been to university or college. Hairdressing, for example, is one of the worst paid occupations on average. Unskilled work is very low value, low status work and there are few openings for people who have no educational qualifications. Work which once was done by people is now done by one person with a qualification who operates a machine. In the 1930s, digging was done by teams of men with shovels. We would be surprised to see people do work of this kind today. Even much check-out work is now done by machine alone. In the 197Os, it was commonly believed by many commentators that the working class were becoming more middle class as their incomes were higher than previously earned by the working class. This theory was known as the affluent worker thesis or embourgeoisement and was supported by Galbraith. This theory was disproved by Goldthorpe, Lockwood, Bechofer and Platt (1968) who conducted detailed research on car workers in Dagenham. They found that that the workers worked longer hours and had different attitudes to work from middle class management. Fiona Devine (1992) repeated the work and found that redundancy and unemployment were a real concern for working class families. The gap between professional work and working class work was widening. Another debate has opened up in terms of occupation and class in the last thirty years. Unemployment and benefit dependency has become more common in British society. This has led to the development of a significant underclass of people who have never earned their own money. In the early 1970s, the term was used sympathetically by Giddens and other members of the developing New Left (1973) to describe those who faced massive deprivation and social inequality with working conditions and income levels below even those of the working class. At the same time, other social commentators from the New  Right were using the term underclass negatively to describe a class of people who have little self-sufficiency but rely on social security benefits to survive. The term dole scrounger was widely used in the press to describe those who lived on benefit. What is the relationship between work, class and income? There is a common belief that those who earn more money have worked harder for it. In reality, the low paid are often extremely hard working but unable to gain an acceptable income from the work that they do. One of the reasons is to do with the changing nature of the work that is available. The structure of the British economy has undergone radical change since the end of World War 2. There has been a massive move away from employment in primary industries such as agriculture and coal mining. Manufacturing or secondary industry has also experienced a drop in employment. There has been a reduction in traditionally male heavy industry and a growth in light industry and assembly work that can be automated and which employs more females. The real growth sector in the economy has been in service sector jobs. Many of these are middle class jobs in management and training; however, more are jobs which offer long hours, low pay and casual part time work in restaurants and pubs. Ivan Turak (2000) points out that the actual number of manual jobs fell by 11% between 1981 and 1991 while non-manual jobs have expanded. Certain sectors of the workforce have been more vulnerable to unemployment, and he points to the older male manual worker as being particularly vulnerable. Paul Gregg (1994) has claimed that one of the main causes of poverty in Britain is unemployment and that the UK had a third more families out of work than other developed countries. Statistics suggest that in a fifth of households, there is no adult in employment and although in the rest of Europe, 80% of single parents work, in Britain the figure is closer to 40% of single parents in work. Figures based on social class alone are difficult to access, as emphasis is placed on other forms of inequality in official data. However, there is a  clear link between a persons social class and the opportunities or life chances that they may experience. As Wilkinson (1996) identified, people at the bottom of the stratification system in the UK have severely reduced life chances: In Britain people in the poorest areas have death rates that are age for age four times as high as people in the richest areas. Among Whitehall civil servants, junior staff were found to have death rates three times as high as the most senior administrators working in the same offices. In 1994, it was established that 2.2 million workers in the UK earned less than 68% of the average gross weekly wage that stood at less than  £6.00 per hour in that year. These low paid workers tended to be female, the young, the disabled, single parents and members of ethnic minorities. Their work was part-time, homework or casual labour and they tended to be found in certain areas, and in smaller firms. After much pressure on government, National Minimum Wage legislation was introduced by the Labour government with effect from April 1999. It is currently set at  £5.73 (2009). Employers organisations had predicted a massive increase in unemployment following the introduction of a minimum wage, but this did not occur. Even so, people still resort to desperate measures to obtain satisfactory income. Evidence presented to the Low Pay Commission by the Greater Manchester Low Pay Unit (2000) described one woman who had taken on three low paid jobs at one time in order to make ends meet. Wadsworth (2007) suggests that around 10% of British households rely on minimum wage income. He also points out that many minimum wage earners take a second job to supplement income. Bryan and Taylor (2006) suggest that those who earn National Minimum Wage (NMW) tend to stay in NMW work jobs when they change employment. In addition, low pay workers spend time out of work. More than 80% of NMW workers are female, and many are over the age of 50. Most of these workers had no qualifications. There is also some evidence that employers can evade minimum wage legislation through a variety of semi-legal tactics and pay their workers less than they are entitled to. Migrants are very vulnerable to this kind of abuse. We are clearly a long way from Tony Blairs claim in 1999 we are all middle class. Where class convergence has been greatest it has been at the margins of the classes with a blurred area between the upper working class and lower middle class. The term embourgeoisement is less discussed than it used to be, but Goldthorpe et als conclusion that the working class has fragmented into a new and traditional working class commands general support to this day. Another factor worth remembering when considering the embourgeoisement debate is what is happening at the other end of the working class. At the bottom of society many see an impoverished underclass of those living on the minimum wage or in receipt of long-term welfare. This impoverished group has seen their living standards deteriorate relative to the rest of society. 3 How does social class affect educational attainment? As the ESRC point out, British sociologists all tend to agree that qualifications are the best predictor of whether a child will gain a high earning middle-class job. However they also point out that there are unequal success rates between social classes at school and unequal entry and success rates in post-compulsory education. Government data reveals significant differences between the educational attainments of the differing social classes. In 2008, 35% of the working class pupils obtained five or more good-grade GCSEs, compared with 63 per cent of children from middle class families. While the proportion of poorer children getting degrees has risen by just 3 per cent, the increase among those from wealthier backgrounds is 26 per cent. The reasons for the development of this pattern are complex. It could be to do with home or schools, or it could be related to cultural or material deprivation. Sociologists, Bynner and Joshi (2002) used longitudinal birth cohort data and discovered that the link between class and educational underattainment is clear and years of government policy have had little impact on this inequality. In 1999, West et al found that there was a 66% correlation between free  school meals and low school attainment. Levacic and Hardman in 1999 also pointed out the relationship between free school meals and poor GCSE grades. OKeefe found that there was a measurable relationship between free school meals and higher levels of truancy. Jefferis (2002) found an unarguable link between class and attainment. She studied nearly 11,000 children born from March 3 to 9, 1958. Maths, reading and other ability tests measured the educational attainment of the children at ages seven, 11 and 16. At the age of 33 their highest educational achievement was recorded. Her research team found the gap in educational attainment between children of higher and lower social classes widened as time went on it was greatest by the age of 33. At university level, social class inequalities still have an effect. Wakeling suggested in 2002 that a lower class degree and rich parents are more likely to lead to a student taking up post-graduate studies than the highest level university degrees and a modest background. Boliver (2006) found that only 35% of candidates from semi/unskilled manual class origins applied to a Russell Group university (one of the top 100 universities in the UK), in contrast to 65% of those from professional backgrounds. Machin and Vignoles (2005) conducted research on links between higher education and family background, focusing particularly on the experiences of two cohorts of individuals born in 1958 and 1970. They claim that links between educational achievement and parental income / social class strengthened during this period. The Social Mobility Commission, reporting in 2009, found that social class accounts for much of the gap in attainment between higher and lower achievers. They reported that the gap widens as children get older. In addition, it was claimed that increased spending on education has favoured the middle classes. In other words division between the social classes is widening. 4 What is the relationship between social class, criminality and inequality in the UK? Maguire points out that the prison population tends to consist of young,  male, poorly educated people who are likely to have experienced difficult or deprived childhoods and many of whom come from ethnic minority or mixed ethnic backgrounds. In 1992, 40 % of male prisoners had left school before the age of sixteen. People from lower social class backgrounds are significantly more likely to appear in victim and conviction statistics than people from wealthier backgrounds and it is a matter of argument as to whether they commit more crime, or they are more likely to be convicted if they do commit crimes. In the past, much analysis of criminal behaviour worked on the false assumptions that crime statistics were an accurate representation of crime and that conviction rates gave a fair representation of criminal behaviour. Self report studies show that the majority of the population have broken the law and that middle class crimes can often be very serious indeed. For example, Murphy et al (1990) showed that football hooliganism is not limited to the working classes and Pearson (1987) found that drug offences occur in all social classes. White collar crime and corporate offences receive very little attention from the news media in comparison with youth crime such as knife crime. Levi (1993) pointed out that official statistics do not include tax fraud cases as these are rarely prosecuted by the police or followed up by the criminal justice system. Snider points out that capitalist states are unwilling to pass laws that regulate business or challenge the rights of the rich to make money. Karstedt (2004) estimates that middle class crimes such as car tax avoidance, tax fraud and damaging items once worn in order to return them to shops may cost the UK something in the region of  £14 billion each year. Braithwaite, as early as 1979, concluded that working class children and adults commit the types of crime that are targeted by the police and do so at higher rates than middle class people. There is also research evidence to show that some forms of crime are linked to poverty and deprivation. Gang crime is especially prevalent in areas of deprivation where there are fewer opportunities for work. Brodie et al (2000) and Hope and Shaw (1988) found disadvantaged communities to be vulnerable to youth crime. It is estimated that 40% of crime takes place in about 10% of local authority areas. Stratesky (2004) links this phenomenon to the concentration of power and social exclusion in post industrial communities. Willott and Griffin (1999) found that working class men in prison justified their criminal behaviour by claiming that they were supporting their families. Furthermore, because they were effectively excluded from society, they could not then be expected to follow its rules. It could be argued that these accounts are self- serving because the victims of crime are often the very weakest in the community. Living in a poor and deprived community is also to live at risk of being a victim of crimes such as car theft, vandalism, anti-social behaviour, burglary and violence. Hughes et al (2002) suggest that more than half of victims of crime have already previously been victimised. This acts as evidence that some types of crime are more likely to be associated with working class status than others, particularly crimes against property and the person. 5 Are there class inequalities in the experience of health? The over-arching factor affecting health inequality in the UK is social class. Study after study shows that people born in poor families are low birth weight, are more likely to die as babies, grow up with poor health, are vulnerable to disabling disease and impaired development and they die early. Their children will experience poor life chances so health inequality runs in families. Some of these health inequalities are due to patterns of poor life style so that obesity and smoking related illnesses are also diseases of poverty and deprivation. Children born in poverty and deprivation are also vulnerable to high risk behaviour such as drug abuse, binge drinking and sexual transmission of disease. Furthermore, in 2002, the Office for National Statistics said that inequalities of health and life expectancy between social classes were widening. Spicker points out that figures from the UK show that people in lower social classes, including children, are more likely to suffer from infective and parasitic diseases, pneumonia, poisonings or violence. Adults in lower social classes are more likely to suffer from cancer, heart disease and respiratory disease. He also underlines the point that there are inequalities in access to health care according to social class, so that the  poorest people live in areas with fewer doctors, more difficult access to major hospitals and poorer services. Wheeler et al, working on 2001 Census data also found that areas with the highest levels of poor health tend to have the lowest numbers of doctors and other health professionals (other than nurses). They also discovered that areas with high levels of poor health tend also to have high numbers of their population providing informal care for family and friends. There is lower take-up of preventative medicine such as vaccination and routine screen ing for disabling conditions among working class people. This called the inverse care law. Discounting theories that suggest the working class are genetically weaker, then the unavoidable conclusion is that poverty leads to ill health through poor nutrition, housing and environment. This is exacerbated through cultural differences in the diet and fitness of different social classes, and in certain habits like smoking. Tim Spector (2006), an epidemiologist found that social class has an impact on how the body ages, irrespective of diet and bad habits. In a study of 1,500 women, he discovered that there is a link between class and poor health. He claims that the cause is that people from lower social backgrounds are more likely to feel insecure, especially at work, and suffer low self-esteem and a sense of lacking control over their lives. He claims that the stress this causes creates damage at a cellular level that accelerates ageing. Support for this theory can be found in the fact that studies consistently show that people from lower social classes experience higher levels of mental ill-health, with particularly high rates of depression and anxiety. There is additional health risk from many working class jobs. Males in manual jobs are more than twice as likely to get occupational lung cancer. Bladder cancer is also work-related, associated with work in industrial settings. For nearly all conditions the risk of heart disease, cancer, stain injury and stress is higher for those in working class occupations rather than managerial jobs in the same industry. 6 Class change and sociological theory Social class is undoubtedly changing significantly and this has prompted a  number of debates as to the meanings of these changes and the impact that they have on class. Marxists have a problem because Marx suggested that people would develop a class consciousness and overthrow capitalism. Clearly, this has not happened, in fact people are less aware of class as a social dynamic. There are different explanations for this. 7 8 What is proletarianisation? Proletarianisation is a Marxist concept that sees the middle-class as identifying increasingly with working-class identity. Applied research has focused upon using case studies to examine whether non-manual work is becoming increasingly similar to manual work. Neo-Marxists like Erik Wright or Harry Braverman claim that proletarianisation is progressing at a reasonable pace. In contrast, neo-Weberians like David Lockwood and John Goldthorpe have always vigorously argued against it. One reason for this conflict of views is that different meanings of proletarianisation are adopted in order to measure it. Neo-Marxists such as Wright and Braverman argue that routine white-collar workers are no longer middle class. They consequently see such jobs and even some professions, such as nursing and teaching, as particularly prone to proletarianisation. Braverman argues that deskilling in the workplace affects both manual and non-manual work, causing him to argue that routine white-collar workers have joined the mass of unskilled employees. As such they are part of the working class, they are proletarianised. Braverman argues that deskilling and the loss of the social and economic advantages non-manual jobs enjoyed over manual work, are the key factors behind the growth of proletarianisation. In addition, many workers have lost the control and autonomy they enjoyed 20 years or so in the workplace. A good example is the university lecturers Wright cited as example of semi-autonomous workers in a contradictory class location. Many university lecturers are very poorly paid and on short term contracts. Many earn less than primary school teachers. In addition they are subject to performance  scrutiny and time monitoring. Many professionals in education are now subject to clocking in and out like factory workers. It has been argued by some feminists, such as Rosemary Crompton, that women are more prone to proletarianisation than men, in the sense that they experience poorer promotional opportunities. In examining the work of clerks (Crompton and Jones) they found that only a low level of skill was required and that computerisation seemed to accentuate proletarianisation. However, Marshall et al have challenged the idea of proletarianisation. They found both male and female routine white collar workers reported greater levels of autonomy than those in the working class. They found that it was mainly manual workers who felt their work had been deskilled. In contrast, the perceptions of over 90 per cent of male and female non-manual workers were that neither skill levels nor autonomy had significantly diminished. However, they did find that personal service workers such as receptionists, check-out operators and shop assistants lacked a sense of autonomy in a manner similar to the working class. Since this group is composed primarily of female workers, this supports the idea that women are more prone to proletarianisation. Recent research by Clark and Hoffman-Martinot (1998) has highlighted a growing number of casual or routine workers who spend their working day in front of a VDU and/or on the telephone. †¢ Marxists would see such workers, especially those is call centres as working class despite the white-collar working environment. They would see the low morale and general worker discontent as evidence of class consciousness and a sense of collective work-place identity. †¢ A Weberian analysis would identify class in terms of a group sharing a weak market position in the labour force. Weberians might identify any internal competition between workers and factors such as performance-related pay as designed to fragment the workforce. Any attempts at unionisation, they might argue, could reflect the pursuit of sectional interests (party) rather than evidence of class consciousness. 9 How have contemporary models of class developed? As we have seen a range of neo-Marxist and neo- Weberian models of class have developed in the past 50 years or so adapting and interpreting the ideas of Marx and Weber. There is a consensus that the size and make-up of the working-class is shrinking as we move to a post-industrial society, however, there are markedly different interpretations about the meanings and consequences of this change. †¢ Neo-Weberians such as John Goldthorpe and David Lockwood have focused upon occupational categories within a market power context. †¢ Neo-Marxists argue that the critical issue is whether the working-class are falsely conscious. †¢ A third group, the postmodernists have argued that class is dead; having lost its significance as a source of identity. Consumption, they argue, has become the main definer of people in society. What do postmodernists say about class changes?  Postmodernists would question whether class and class identities are meaningful concepts anymore, arguing it makes more sense to speak of a fragmented society with identity increasingly derived from consumption rather than issues associated with production, such as occupation. According to a Postmodern vision, people are seen to acquire their identities as consumers rather than as producers. Status differences (now based on consumption) were seen no longer as sharp and divisive, but loose and cross-cutting. Peoples consumption became home-centred in the post-war period, rather than communal, and their identities as consumers became constructed from images that came into their homes through the rapidly expanding media. The mass popular culture that resulted seemed more real than experiences outside the home and at the workplace. The French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu researched the relationship between consumption and class. He found that consumption patterns varied not only between classes but within them too. He argued that people thus use consumption to both establish and express their social difference. Bourdieu draws from both the work of Marx and Weber in his analysis that consumption and class are interrelated influences on identity. He argues social  divisions are not shaped by economic capital alone but introduces his important concept of cultural capital that he sees as shaping lifestyle including promoting education success, sports and leisure activities. However, he argues that cultural capital has to have symbolic status and be recognized within the society as having high status.